Do Personality Traits Predict Behaviour?

Do personality traits predict behaviour? The trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. After type theorists such as Sheldon, who focused on body parts to determine temperament, and lexical researchers such as Galton who provided the first dictionary of words to describe behaviour, the principles underpinning trait theory were first outlined by Gordon Allport (1937). He found that one English-language dictionary alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits and suggested that it is how the traits come together that produces the uniqueness of all individuals. Rather than relying on intuition or subjective judgement as did Freud and many other neo-Freudians, trait theorists used objective measurements to examine their constructs. The use of factor analysis was a major breakthrough in the trait approach and Raymond Cattell was the first to make the use of this to reduce the lists of traits to a smaller number. This marked the beginning of the search to discover the basis structure of personality. This essay will discuss the issues surrounding the use of personality measures such as Eysencks personality questionnaire (EPQ) and Costa and Mc Crae’s Big Five model (NEO-PIR) to predict behaviour. Cattell’s 16PF hasn’t had much of an impact but personality measures that followed such as Eysenck’s personality questionnaire, who claimed that 3 types/ supertraits, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism, make up the basic structure of personality, and Costa and mc Crae’s Big Five Model measuring Openness, Conscientious, Extraversion, agreeableness and Neuroticism, have received a high level of support. The personality factors are found cross-culturally, in children as well as adults and specifically for Eysencks model in identical twins raised apart, evidence which seems to demonstrate that the observed personality differences are stable across time and have a genetic basis, although the underlying heritability estimate used in studies has been questioned by Plomin. Nevertheless, trait measures have great practical applications; they have been embraced by psychologists from almost every perspective and used by professionals working in a wide variety of settings, such as in the workplace and the education system etc, and are used to make important judgements about an individual’s behaviour in different situations. Employers have used scores from personality tests to make hiring and promotion decisions for many years (Roberts and Hogan, 2000). The methodology used to identify the dimensional structure of personality traits, factor analysis, is often challenged for not having a universally-recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors. More than one interpretation can be made of the same data factored the same way, and factor analysis cannot identify causality. However, some of the most common criticisms of trait theory centre on the fact that traits are often poor predictors of behaviour. While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every situation. This was highlighted by Walter Mischel (1968, 1973) who stimulated a huge debate that raged until the early 1980s, concerning whether personality traits predict behaviour. At the heart of this debate was the questioning of the stability of traits across situations, known as the ‘personality paradox’. He demonstrated with his CAPs model that there is a complex interaction between situations and enduring individual personality differences, however the effects of many variables still have to be examined. Mischel criticised how personality measures were interpreted and used, demonstrating that on average personality measures statistically account for only around 10% of the variance observed in behaviour, therefore 90% is due to something other than the effect of personality. This reflects the fact that many factors contribute to any one piece of behaviour, such as: the characteristics of the specific situation, the person’s mood at that time, competing goals, etc. However an argument in trait theories defence is in regard to the . 30, . 40 correlation co-efficient. How high does a correlation have to be before its considered important? Research by Funder and Ozer (1983) looked at social psychological findings often cited for their â€Å"important† findings and found that they had similar co-efficient of . 36 and . 42. In their defence trait theorists argue that researchers often fail to provide a strong link between traits and behaviour is because they don’t measure behaviour correctly, only measuring one behaviour. As an alternative researchers can aggregate data, one study looked at trait measures of aggression and the number of aggressive acts students preformed, not only on one day but over the course of two weeks and found a correlation of . 1 between the aggregated measure and the trait score (Wu and Clarke, 2003). Burger (2008) states that when all the complex influences on our behaviour are taken into account we probably should be impressed that personality psychologists can explain even 10%. Mischels criticism has had beneficial effects in work settings, with the use of multiple measures of p ersonality such as, psychometric assessments, interviews, individual and group tasks used together as an assessment package to prevent overreliance on the psychometric tool. Furthermore, Mischels views led researchers to look very critically at their methodologies, admitting that measures were often weak and the selection of which traits to study was sometimes inappropriate (Funder, 1999,2001). Today most psychologists agree that the person and the situation react to determine behaviour ( Maggnusson, 1990) and Swan and Seyle (2005) conclude their review on Mischels work by saying that there are still instances where it is helpful to make distinctions between personal and situational determines of behaviour.

Global Warming: Fact or Fantasy? Essay

While there is a growing concern over the doomsday and gloom events that the earth will likely suffer if people will continue harassing the environment, a big inquiry within the issue on global warming bomdards people everyday: is global warming fact of fantasy? Environmentalists, politicians and concerned citizens are getting involved in the so-called great divide over how real the threat of global warming is or how scary will it be for the people who are caught believing in politicking through science. The scarcity on the supply of potable water and the warming of the oceans, seas and the earth’s surface are all well documented inciting a compelling evidence indicating that global warming may not be the impending doomsday that many scientists forecast. The divided arguments over the reality of global warming is said to be heightened by by commercial and political interests infiltrating the global initiative to curb the devastating effect of global warming. On the other hand, several concerned scientists believe on the promise of the precautionary measures mobilized by governments across the globe in the pursuit of delayinng or even getting rid of the future threats of damage caused by global warming. While there is still no consensus on the vital controversy, this paper takes a stand by suggesting that there is a clear over-manipulation on the issue and instead of exposing to people the real scenario and the real solution to the problem of global warming, there is a great deal of populist pressure overshadowing the advocacy. The aim of this paper is to explore the controversies behind global warming that confuse people across the globe. The Earth is Indeed Getting Warmer According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the earth is really getting warmer and that globally averaged surfac temperatures have increased by 1. 1? over the 20th century (Tennesen 4). Under the jurisdiction of the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Program, the institution has estimated that by year 2100, the earth will be 2. 5 to 10. 4? warmer than the present (Tennesen 4). It is said that the human civilization has been causing disturbances to nature by way of abusive of carbon and hydrogen which are considered as the building blocks of nature (J. Tickell and K. Tickell 16). Many scientists and environmentalists believe that greenhouse effect initiates global warming. Greenhouse effect is the ability to of the gases circulating around the Earth’s artmosphere to keep the planet warm (J. Tickell and K. Tickell 17). In this sense, man has brought imbalance to nature and amplified the greenhouse effect by producing billions of tons of greenhouse gases (J. Tickell and K. Tickell 17). This is why man becomes a The Environmental Fantasies With all the scientific evidence cementing the idea that the earth’s rising temperature is alarming, uncertainties and confusion still envelops the global struggle against global warming. Why is is this so? According to Greg Easterbrook, â€Å" Environmentalists, who are surely on the right side of history, are increasingly on the wrong side of the present, risking their credibility by proclaiming emergencies that do not exist. † (qtd. in Percival and Alevizatos 401). He adds that scientists and concerned people known as doomsayers are giving uncautious answers as to whether how alarming global warming could be in the near future when in fact, the main answer should be â€Å"We still don’t know† (qtd. in Percival and Alevizatos 407). The unpredictable state of nature is what instigates several fantasies on the reality of global warming. The populist mechanisms of environmental advocates are making it vague for humans to comprehend and understand all contingencies pointing to global warming. The fantasies which the populists continuously argue include the weather anomalies and those ideologies imposed by the cold earth theorists (Ross 205). Those who support cold earth are still holding their ground againts the media frenzy over global warming saying that the warming theory is just a fabricated government cover-up strongly impacted by the short-term interests of the energy industry (Ross 206). The theorists seem to laugh off the apocalyptic projection of concerned individuals over the impact of global warming because they recognize the need for accurate and realistic estimation of the damage. The cold earth theorists argue that carbon dioxide, the known factor in all reports of global warming, accounted for only three percent of temperature variation and that the documented increase in the earth’s temperature is actually an aspect in hastening the end of the interglacial period (Ross 204). Due to the strange and unpredictable character of the weather, it is quite easy to overrate or even underrate what it will soon bring to the earth. The theorists attest to the idea of scientific frailty by bringing in uncertainties in the issue that seem to attract political and economic interest. Factors such as career prestige, government funding, lobby, formulate and administer policy and the advancement of the discipline of climatology are what fuel political interests in the issue creating such a thing as fantasies (Ross 211). All of the factors given are generally associated with precautionary measures being undertaken by governments and organizations worldwide to combat the problem on the earth’s warming and the . Some critics say that the worldwide initiatives against global warming become a form of constructive power that transforms the world into a different image, detaching it from its real meaning and value and delivering it up to the realization of technical description and control (Ross 212). This realization brings up the idea of fantasies overshadowing the reality of global warming. The vigorous publicity rendered towards global warming is leading towards a more mature idea of ecology as a resource management. Conclusion The only thing factual about global warming is that people are starting to feel its wrath. Nature’s wrath is an inevitable circumstance resulting from man’s continued use of carbon dioxide and other harmful substances that cause nature’s rift. Though there are skeptics who believe that the precautionary measures of governments are just mere fantasises based on selfish and populist ideals, scientific uncertainties should not an excuse to to delay governmental actions where there are clear threarts of danger that could be grave and irreversible (Berry 216). The fantasies which this paper have explored given an insight on how ill-prepared and ill-informed the people are when it comes to the real situation and threat of nature. It is said that the pursuit for better and liveable environment is not a mediocre and a cheap course to take and the skeptics who are not ready to accept the cost that comes with the pursuit. It is a classic thought that the public is not ready to accept the unlimited extra costs for the maintenance of good environment (Berry 216). The consumers are not willing to pay more to have a better environment to live in and they begin to doubt the real costs of confronting the problem of global warming. The fantasies explored in this paper are all associated to economic and political ideals and the skeptics of global warming belong in the consumer group who contribute greatly to the global pursuit by paying taxes and buying goods. This scenario is largely attributable to the skepticism against the initiatives conducted by the government to lessen or even alleviate the future effects of global warming. Even with the skepticism, it is a reality that people could not compromise the earth they are living in. Works Cited Berry, Robert, J. , ed. Environmental Dilemmas: Ethics and Decisions. London: Chapman and Hall, 1993. Print. Percival, Robert, V. , and Dorothy Alevizatos, eds. Law and the Environment: A Multidisciplinary Reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997. Print. Ross, Andrew. Strange Weather: Culture, Science and Technology in the Age of Limits. London: Verso, 1991. Print. Tennesen, Michael. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Global Warming. New York: Alpha Books, 2004. Print. Tickell, Joshua, and Kaia Tickell, From the Fryer to the Fuel Tank: The Complete Guide to Using Vegetable Oil as an Alternative Fuel. California: Tickell Energy, 2003. Print.

Fukushima Nuclear Plant Explosion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Fukushima Nuclear Plant Explosion - Essay Example After the earthquake and the subsequent Fukushima accident the nuclear system went offline. This led to a shortage of electricity across the nation. A lot people suffered because business activity seized without electricity which caused the shutdown of operations of many corporations. The Fukushima nuclear accident had horrible repercussions for the Japanese people. The managers running the plant had to make some tough ethical decisions. Crews of workers were send in into the plant knowing fully they would be exposed to radiation levels above the level any human can endured. These courageous workers sacrificed their well being to protect the Japanese community. The government used a lot of disinformation tactics to hide the truth about the long term consequences of the Fukushima accident. A study performed on the situation revealed that out of 7.8 billion people living within 200 kilometers of Fukushima 400,000 people will develop cancer due to the radiation that was released after the accident

Modern Consumerism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modern Consumerism - Essay Example When one need is fulfilled, there is always going to be another need that pops up requiring attention. That is just the way humans are made. Not necessarily just physical needs need to be met—but rather, the accoutrement of things which humans seem to accumulate over the years one has spent living is a perfect example of this, especially in more developed countries. Consumption is so puzzling to Campbell especially because this insatiability for things is considered an ethnocentric phenomenon, in his view.2 For example, it is considered anathema in some cultures to want things outside of what one already has—not to mention blasphemous to try to attain things for the self. Any kind of achievements that are related to one â€Å"getting ahead† in life is not the norm in small communities. Rather, it is the importance of community that encapsulates one’s decisions—not the self-promotion and self-egotistical self-centeredness that is so evident in many W estern cultures. This self-centeredness is puzzling not only because one knows one can â€Å"never have enough,† but this incessant search in the quest for one’s self-fulfillment—demonstrated in Western culture—is tantamount to blasphemy. In a small town somewhere off the beaten path, this kind of behavior would never be tolerated. This is because, in essence, in the cultures of many nations that are less-developed or not developed at all, community is a big part of who people are. These humble people who grew up with small beginnings are not willing to sell out their communities for fame. It is just not in their natures. What is in human nature, however—which apparently shows up more in Western cultures than not—is this idea of instant gratification and the search for self-actualization that is not found in many places that are rural where the people have less education and

Narrative Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Narrative Speech - Essay Example Indeed, I was happy and executed at the opportunity of exploring new cultures and the education system making it difficult to focus on the tasks at home. However, my parents were not excited since they indicated that I would lose my traditional values and struggle for resources. Apparently, these are effects of immigration based on their research. As my family said goodbye during departure, I acknowledged that it would be difficult for them to visit due to the stringent immigration laws. Indeed, foreigners in the US are often mistaken as persons in search of opportunities to further their dreams; however, this is rarely the case. Indeed, I felt horrible that I was leaving my family behind. Nevertheless, I marveled at the chance of meeting new people. As I landed and exited from JFK, I noticed that the US was significantly developed as compared to my home country. The buzzing cars and skyscrapers were breathtaking; however, I began missing home since everything seemed different. Indeed, I was experiencing culture shock. I immediately bought a hot dog since I was hungry. Alas! I was already abandoning my culture since I devalue fast food. As I settled down, I found a job and attended school; however, I miss big family. I realized that immigration distorts one’s culture since I am accustomed to fast foods; furthermore, I intend to look for additional jobs to keep up indicating that immigrants struggle for resources. In conclusion, it is clear that immigration is a social problem because it leads to loss of values and struggle for resources (Spijkerboer & Walsum

Gender stratification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Gender stratification - Essay Example Sexism, as used in this context, refers to the situation in which men are seen as superior beings and therefore, regarded as better suited to take on challenging tasks and education fields. On practical perspective, sexism has had severe consequences on women. As widely cited, sexism has always made women to strive to avoid impressing careers often seen as belonging to men. Perhaps, this might be hinged on the fact that their objective is to avoid the societal impression that they are much less desirable as mothers or spouses or even less feminine. Gender stratification often encompasses all the aspects of a person’s social life cutting across the social classes. As such, it relates the probabilities of both genders to the unequal access to property, power and prestige due to the sex differences. This area of interest explores social patterns coupled with cultural practices. When one dives into the mechanics of society workings, certain features are common to each and every co mmunity. In connection to this, there also exist differences in characteristics, traditions and customs. More particularly the differences observed in institutions of learning concerning the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics clearly points out this extended form of stratification. Gender identity is the classification of one as either male or female. It is how an individual sees himself or herself. It is the apparent manifestations that result from the personality of an individual. It has the ability to reflect on ones gender identity. Gender identity is self identified and results from intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Many at times gender identity can be confused with gender roles. The latter denotes behavior manifested by factors acquired through observation; this can be exemplified by behavior and appearance. Thus, the gender role is often an outward expression of a person’s gender identity. This article will endeavor to expound on such gender stra tification, with a focus on gender construction, gender socialization and the role of media. This being the case, five articles will be analyzed in a move to have a broader view of this discussion. Body According to the Broyles (2009) the gender pay gap of women in the United States that experiences and education accounted for most of the widespread gender gap. According to the findings of this article, work function and the employer accounts for most of the pay gap. Indeed, women hold positions in the lower paying chemistry positions. This article, well points out that work place diversity within the STEM professions is less likely to occur without the wage parity between men and women in the STEM professions. Elaborating further on this subject, this article asserts that, a way of achieving gender pay equity in the STEM professions must involve the federal tax incentives in order to ensure compliance with the standards stipulated by the federal pay equity standards. Giving a back up on this issue, the article by Shapiro and Williams point it out that, stereotype threats have played a role in undermining women performance as well as, reducing the interests of women in STEM fields (Shapiro & Williams 74). In one study, they observed that negative stereotypes presented by parents and the teachers shaped the interests of women and their abilities in the performance of STEM field. Indeed their

Letter to the editor Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Letter to the editor - Assignment Example Mr. Perez makes the assumption that everyone will agree with his position that racial profiling is dangerous rhetoric. The truth is Americans are concerned with the problems of illegal immigration. Only minorities might agree with this point of view. A better argument can be made than racial profiling is wrong. Solutions need to be given for the immigration problem. There are no easy solutions, but maybe if Arizona is provided with alternatives, then racial profiling legislation might not be needed. Several options that could be explored are stricter I.D. regulations. New technology could provide the answer. In many states, to receive an I.D. a fingerprint must be given. Police might be provided with a fingerprint pad to compare with the fingerprint listed on file. If the I.D. is not legitimate this could be spotted immediately. Another option would be all government services have a photo I.D. with the fingerprint requirement. Services like healthcare, any governmental services, and so forth could be mandated. Buying tags, registering a car, filing a lawsuit, and registering for a post office box are all examples of government services. Driver’s Licenses and state I.D.s with better security measures like finger prints, barcodes, and photos embedded in the issue I.D. with the same techniques as used in money and checks could help spot illegal immigrants. A perfect example of checking I.D. legally would be through the Census. If an individual does not send in a Census form , the Census bureau sends out field agents. Names that are sent in can be checked with legitimate Social Security numbers, credit reports, and other sources, if a name cannot be matched up, then I.D. will be required. There are so many instances that an I.D. is required. Eventually illegal immigrants would be caught. Crime is another issue that the Arizona legislation addressed. Violent crimes are being committed by

Law for Business Assignment Brief Case (The Water Cooler Disaster) Essay

Law for Business Assignment Brief Case (The Water Cooler Disaster) - Essay Example In this scenario, there is clearly an agreement, whereby the trader promises to deliver 100 water coolers and 1000 50 litre replacement bottles of water in return for a consideration of ? 6000. There is the intention to create legally binding agreement, which is evidenced in writing through the terms of the contract. Consequently, a contract exists between the trader and the company. Contractual terms define the obligation of both parties to a contract. A failure to comply in full with a performance of an obligation, devoid of any lawful excuse, is a breach of the contract. In a contract for the sale of goods, there are both the express and implied conditions. Express conditions are usually spelt out in the contract, while most implied terms are statutorily derived. This scenario involves a contract of sale of goods. A contract for sale of goods is defined at section 1 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 to mean â€Å"a contract by which the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the prop erty in goods to the buyer for a money consideration called price.† Therefore, beside the express terms in the contract, the terms implied by the Sale of Goods and Services Act 1982, shall apply. The Company can recover damages from the trader for breach of the contract. ... With regards to the express terms, the contract stipulates that the trader was to provide water coolers that take standard sized replacement bottles which are widely available. However, the water coolers actually supplied were not of universal size and design and it will not be possible to buy replacement bottles. This is breach of a condition. A condition is a term that goes to the root of the contract, the breach of which entitles the innocent party to terminate the contract and to have compensation of the damages awarded. In Behn V. Burness1 a ship was stated in the contract of charter party to be ‘now in Amsterdam.’ The fact that the ship was not in the port at the date of the contract discharged the charter from performance. Section 13(1) of sale of goods Act 1979 provides that â€Å"where there is a contract for the sale of goods by description, there is an implied condition that the goods will correspond with description.† In this scenario, the water cooler s to be delivered were described to be able to take standard sized replacement bottles. Therefore, this was a condition implied on the contract by the Sale of Goods Act 1979. To add, Sale of Goods Act implies the condition that the goods sold ought to be of merchantable quality. Section 14(2) stipulates that â€Å"where seller sells goods in the course of business, there is an implied condition that the goods supplied under the contract are of merchantable quality, except that there is no such condition-†¦ (b) If the buyer examines the goods before the contract is made, as regards defects which that examination ought to reveal.† Consequently, there is evidently breach of conditions both express and implied. A breach of a condition entitles the injured party to damages. In this scenario, the

Beneficial Effects of Overseas Travel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Beneficial Effects of Overseas Travel - Essay Example The "Beneficial effect of overseas travel" demonstrates positive effect that traveling has on adventurers. It also contains personal experience of some travelers. The learning on an overseas trip begins from the point where the person enters the terminal for international flights. As one moves ahead through check-in counter, one learns the laws and regulations regarding international travel. The swarms of people arriving and departing from the airport is a sight in its own where one experiences a place where no single culture is dominant, people of different ethnic backgrounds and belonging to different countries can be seen talking and waiting for their flights to depart. This is one place where a passenger will have a chance to observe his own people and their personalities and traits in comparison to those of people from around the globe. You may have heard of someone returning from an excursion and telling you about what different people were wearing at the airport or how they sp oke etc. Also if you have a connecting flight and have a stop over at a certain airport on the way you will mention the food available and what you liked and disliked. A personal experience of this sort happened on a trip to Malaysia with a stop over in Bangkok. The Bangkok airport which is known to be one of the biggest and busiest airports allows you to meet and interact with people from so many different places. It is hard for a person to walk out without learning a new thing about the people from many parts of the world. I for instance found most people at the airport to be very fashion conscious. Nearly every

Clinical study report for plavix Case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Clinical report for plavix - Case Study Example at least an episode of atherothrombotic event like heart disease, stroke as well as those diagnosed with peripheral arterial diseases characterized by problems with blood flowing into arteries especially in the leg region. This drug is also prescribed for patients diagnosed with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and those with arterial fibrillation (AF); characterized by fast and irregular heartbeats (Dickie, Jennifer, and Lesley 34). Platelets are responsible for the clotting of blood whenever it is necessary for example, when one has a cut and in doing so prevents father bleeding and hemorrhage. In the event that arteries are narrowed by plagues, the body reacts by aggregating together and they may rapture and further increase narrowing of these vessels, which is, likely to increase the chance of heart attack, stroke and other circulatory disorders. This drug acts by reducing the chances of these occurrences by preventing the coagulation in the first place. Plavix acts by irreversibly binding to the P2Y12 receptors on platelets and preventing Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) from activating platelets, which form clots. Drug belongs to the group of drugs called P2Y12 inhibitors and is similar to the drug Ticlopidine (Ticlid) in its chemical structure and mechanism of action. The only difference is that Clopidogrel bisulfates do not cause serious decline in the white blood cell count as seen in patients on Ticlopidine hence there is no need for regular tests to determine white blood cell counts. Plavix is used to prevent the risk of heart disease and stroke in patients who have had a recent episode of heart attack, stroke and narrowed arteries as well as those suffering from peripheral vascular disease characterized by pain in the leg, which could be disabling. The US Food and Drug Association (FDA) approved this drug in 1997. This drug is used in prevention of atherothrombotic events like myocardial infarction (MI), Stroke and vascular death in patients with

Evidence Based Practice in Mental Health Nursing Essay Example for Free

Evidence Based Practice in Mental Health Nursing Essay One of the most common and disabling psychological disorders encountered within mental health and general medical settings is that of an anxiety disorder (Dattilio Kendall 2000). Research has indicated that people with learning disabilities are more prevalent to psychological disorders than the general population (Hassiotis et al 2000) consequently it could be hypothesised that prevalence rates of anxiety disorders are similar if not greater within the learning disabled population. Professional literature suggests that cognitive-behaviour therapy (CBT) has been an effective treatment against anxiety disorder (Beck 1995) however; this literature has predominately concentrated its focus to within the confines of mental health and general medical settings (Dattilio Kendall 2000). The ability of people with learning disabilities to identify, evaluate and respond to their dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs, fundamentals of CBT (Beck 1995) have put into question the very use of this treatment programme for this particular client group (Kroese et al 1997). From a professional and personal perspective and through the utilisation of the Seedhouse (1998) Ethical Grid responding to an anxiety disorder by way of CBT could be considered an ethically acceptable clinical intervention. Nationally and locally through government directives, Valuing People (Department of Health 2001) and initiatives such as Health Action Plans (Department of Health 2002) services have recognised that they need to be more responsive to the mental health needs of people with learning disabilities. As a learning disability nurse wishing to ascertain the effectiveness of CBT as a practical intervention when presented with the dual-diagnosis of anxiety disorder and learning disability, is through the use of evidence-based practice. When deciding on the best possible clinical intervention for an identified practice problem it seams logical to convert the issue into a single answerable question (Colyer Kamath 1999). Several authors have identified that the use of frameworks to inform the development of the clinical question provide the practitioner with a systematic process of formulating an answerable question (Sackett et al 1997 Ridsdale1998). One such framework as described by Sackett et al (1997) is a four- stage process, known by the acronym PICO: Patient or Population Intervention or Indicator Comparison or Control Outcome The construction of an answerable question is the basis of evidence-based practice and should guide the practitioner to how to find an answer (Ridsdale 1998). It is important that each variable under the PICO framework is clearly defined, being as detailed and explicit as possible in order to extend clarification to the question. Working through PICO methodically the practitioner would instigate the process by defining the Patient or Population. Characteristics such age, gender and diagnosis would need to be deliberated and whilst the aforementioned were easily recognised in the practice area as adult male, identifying appropriate terminology for diagnosis can prove problematic. The term Learning Disability is often used interchangeably in literature with terms such as, Mental Retardation and Intellectual Disabilities. Learning Disability is a term with contemporary usage within the United Kingdom to describe a client group with significant development delays (Gates 1996). Whilst the idiom Learning Disability is the preferred terminology for the question due to its contemporary usage it must be accepted that its a term not internationally recognised nor is it a term used for long in the United Kingdom (Gates 1996). Anxiety disorder comes in many facets and can be described as severe psychological disorders in which abnormal or chronic anxiety interferes with daily living (Adams Bromley 1998). The client in the practice area had described psychological and physiological symptoms that were diagnosed as a social anxiety disorder through rating scales and self-report measures. It is crucial that the practitioner is aware that the term identified for the question as social anxiety is often recognised by the synonyms, social phobia or panic disorder (Dattilio Kendall 2000). The recognition of this inconsistent terminology will enable an evaluation to  take place between the relationships of the chosen term to symptoms displayed by the client. The identification of existing clinical interventions is a valuable part of the process of developing evidenced-based interventions (Meijel 2003). Literature suggests that CBT is an effective treatment for a number of psychological disorders (Embling 2002 Hatton 2002). Central to the model of CBT is that distorted or dysfunctional thinking is prevalent in all psychological disorders (Beck 1995). Analysis of accumulated experience of existing interventions and the aforementioned evidence of its validity led to the application of CBT as the question intervention. It is not imperative for the question to have a comparison intervention and this was the situation in the clinical problem described, therefore the conclusive element utilising the PICO framework was outcome. The outcome should be measurable (Sackett et al 1997) and after initially trivialising with the term used it became evident that this would not develop into something that could be measured. Discussing whether or not an intervention is effective however would provide the question with a measurable outcome. Revision of the terminology identified through the PICO framework would consequently translate the question as Is cognitive-behaviour therapy an effective intervention for adult males with learning disabilities diagnosed as suffering from social anxiety? A well-formulated search strategy is an essential component in gathering appropriate evidence (Hewitt-Taylor 2002). Ridsdale (1998) discusses a four-stage search strategy that helps to translate the question into a meaningful search a) Identify the subject elements of the question b) Define the relationship between the subject elements c) Convert the subject elements into search themes d) Decide on the scope of the search Assistance to define the subject elements can be found within the PICO framework Patient Learning Disability, Social Anxiety Intervention CBT Outcome Effectiveness Once identified an effective means of linking the subject elements of a question for the search process is through the use of operators. Operators such as: And Or Not, form a logical link between the elements of the question and can be used collectively or individually in any electronic database search (Ridsdale 1998). All of the subject elements of the question were required in order provide a conclusive answer therefore the operator required for the search strategy could be identified as And. The subject elements then require conversion into terms by which references can be retrieved (Ridsdale 1998). A keyword search would apply the terms identified as the subject elements, however making a list of the known synonyms of the subject elements such as Intellectual Disability and Mental Retardation, for inclusion, would substantially develop the search process. Finally the scope of the search decides what is wanted from the search. In order to identify the most appropriate type of evidence that is required for the practice problem the type of question asked must be identified (Sackett et al 1997). The question developed through the PICO framework can be readily identified as questioning, the effectiveness of a therapy. Sackett et al (1997) proposes that the best available evidence to answer this type of question is comparative / prospective studies and ideally random controlled trials (RCTs) which in turn determine the choice of database (Ridsdale 1998). Sackett et al (1997) provides a comprehensive catalogue of information resources such as databases, journals and web sites along with descriptions  of the type of evidence that can be found within these resources. It was established previously that the best type of evidence for the question would be RCTs and comparative / prospective studies. From the descriptions supplied by Sackett et al (1997) it could be identified that the Cochrane Library supplies the user with full text systematic reviews of effects of health-care interventions along with bibliographies of controlled trials. Further electronic databases identified through Salford University library information services were PsycINFO that contains citations and summaries of journal articles and books in the field of psychology chosen for its congruity with the clinical intervention. Swetswise an electronic journal aggregator that provides access to full text publications from several major health care related academic publishers and IngentaConnect which offers full text availability for all core Blackwell science and medical journals were chosen due to familiarity of use and extensive subject matter. Other databases considered were CINAHL, EMBASE and AMED however all were discounted due to their general nursing bias. Despite the recognition of Ridsdales (1998) four-stage search strategy and its systematic approach the initial search were completed exploiting familiar strategies through the IngentaConnect database. Preconceptions from previous endeavours searching for relevant evidence furnished the belief that a similar strategy would provide sufficient evidence to answer the question. A number of the subject elements were used through keyword searches whilst the operator And was used to link each in turn (See Appendix). This easy to use search strategy produced a number of hits however none matched the criteria identified as being the most appropriate type of evidence to answer the question. The search revealed that almost all of the evidence found belonged in either mental health (Heimberg 2002) or general medical settings (Scholing Emmelkamp 1999). Whenever the term learning disability or mental retardation was utilised they invariable appeared indiscriminately amidst the title or abstract of the article providing no specific relevance to the question. The frustration born out of this strategy led to further searches of electronic databases firstly through another familiar database, Swetswise. Ridsdale (1998) identifies that too many hits will be recovered if the subject element is to general  and this was evident in the first keyword search. The term learning disabilities produced 548 hits (See Appendix) far too many to feasibly scan. The subsequent four searches failed to produce a single hit a possibility also recognised by Ridsdale (1998) who suggests alternative synonyms are utilised in this circumstance. Due to the inability to find any relevant material of value towards answering the question Ridsdales (1998) four-stage strategy was then conscientiously adopted in conjunction with the knowledge acquired through lectures received at Salford University. A further search of Swetswise database was completed (See Appendix) which revealed significantly less hits than previously achieved but produced a literature review (Hatton 2002) specifically aimed at the use of CBT and people with learning disabilities. Whilst this evidence did not fulfil previous identified criteria it established that pursuing Ridsdales (1998) strategy could provide some success. A similar approach was undertaken while searching the Cochrane Library database which allows the user to restrict the search to the acquisition of systematic reviews and controlled trials whilst using a simple keyword option. Again the subject elements were utilised along with the recognised operator and despite new found confidence and kno wledge the search strategy revealed no evidence of systematic reviews or RCTs with regards to the question (See Appendix). All systematic reviews or RCTs retrieved belonged within general and mental health settings. The final electronic database to be utilised was PsycINFO (via Ovid) where again Ridsdales (1998) four-stage strategy was conscientiously adopted. PsycINFO requires the user to have some prior knowledge of how to use electronic databases and their search strategies, which initially can prove bewildering to the novice. Once familiar with the database and its ability to combine search strategies either through keyword, journal or author the user should find it a practical resource (See Appendix). No systematic reviews or RCTs were found within the results however a further literature review (Feldman Rivas-Vazquez 2003) aimed at psychosocial interventions and people with intellectual disabilities was unearthed along with evidence from child and adolescence services (Dadds Spence 1997) and psychiatric services (Carmin Albano 2003). Hatton (2002) suggests that research evidence on the effects of psychosocial interventions  for people with learning disabilities is sparse, whilst Kroese (1998) adds that therapists are reluctant to engage into therapy with this client group due to their dislike of having to relate to them. In an attempt to discover any type of evidence relating to people with learning disabilities and CBT the Salford University library catalogue was searched (See Appendix). A simple keyword search revealed one book (Kroese et al 1997) attaining the subject elements however again it did not produce the type of evidence recognised as the most appropriate to answer the question. Sackett et al (1997 p.2) defines evidence based practice as: the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. With this definition in mind it should be established as to what constitutes current best evidence and its implications for the practitioner wishing to implement evidence based practice. Belsey Snell (2001 p.2) states that, evidence is presented in many forms and the value of evidence can be ranked according to the following classification in descending order of credibility: I. Strong evidence from at least one systematic review of multiple well-designed randomised controlled trials II. Strong evidence from at least one properly designed randomised controlled trial of appropriate size III. Evidence from well-designed trials such as non-randomised trials, cohort studies, time series or matched case-controlled studies IV. Evidence from well-designed non-experimental studies from more than one centre or research group V. Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical evidence, descriptive studies or reports of expert committees In accepting this hierarchy of evidence practitioners should concede that the systematic review of multiple well-designed RCTs constitutes best available evidence (Colyer Kamath 1999). Sullivan (1998) adds weight to this argument when he states that RCTs constitute the strongest source of evidence and that the scientific community prefer the quantitative research technique that makes use of empirical data following a systematic process. Whilst a number of RCTs were found (Dadds Spence 1997 Scholing Emmelkamp 1999) whilst undertaking the search strategy none belonged within learning disability settings. The only evidence found specific to the original question were literature reviews and a specialist book (Kroese et al 1997) aimed at CBT and learning disabilities. The literature reviews (Hatton 2002 Kroese 1998) revealed that a number of case studies and a case series had demonstrated the potential feasibility of CBT reducing anxiety amongst people with learning disabilities. Whilst the specialist book (Kroese et al 1997) discussed conceptual and contextual issues of CBT and people with learning disabilities suffering anxiety disorders. This type of evidence appears in the lower reaches of the hierarchy of evidence and as such its subjectivity, reliability and validity can be disputed (Sullivan 1998). Whilst acknowledging the hierarchy of evidence and the proposal that comparative / prospective studies and ideally RCTs were the best forms of evidence to answer this type of question (Sackett et al 1997) it appears that in their absence the evidence revealed is the best available. RCTs are widely acknowledged as the gold standard of evidence-based practice (Rowland Goss 2000) however it is suggested that they bear little resemblance to day-to-day reality (McInnes et al 2001). RCTs can be pragmatic or explanatory the former is concerned with the overall effectiveness of an intervention whilst the latter examines the impact of specific treatment elements on outcome (Parry 2000) however neither considers the perspectives and uniqueness of the respondents. The evidence recovered for the question (Hatton 2002 Kroese 1998) albeit in the lower reaches of the hierarchy acknowledges the feelings of the respondents due to its qualitative nature (patient centred, holistic and humanistic) therefore making it extremely suitable for the study of nursing phenomena (Parahoo  1997) along with its relevance as regards answering a therapy question (Parry 2000). Kroese (1997) offers a number of reasons why there is this lack of quantitative research evidence surrounding the subject elements in the question. He suggests that people with a learning disability are a devalued population, it is impossible to ensure that changes are due to clinical manipulations if individuals (learning disabled) do not have stable cognitions. Finally there is a conjecture that anxiety in people with learning disabilities is the same as in the general population consequently there is no need for specifically focused research. It emerges that learning disability services continue to adapt research evidence from general and mental health settings (Finlay Lyons 2001) a similar approach with the RCTs recovered from the search strategy could make them a valued resource however it would take a skilled clinician to make this a feasible option. Reflection is a necessary component of Continuing Professional Development and is a legitimate method for questioning personal effectiveness and responsibility in all aspects of health care (Driscoll Teh 2001). Through the process of reflection the practitioner recognised his own limitations in identifying appropriate evidence for his clinical problems, along with the often inconclusive, time consuming and frustrating strategies undertaken in the search of evidence in support of his clinical practice. The structured frameworks utilised throughout the process described earlier gave the practitioner a systematic approach to formulating a question, developing a search strategy and identifying appropriate evidence to answer his practice problem. The ability to systematically approach future clinical problems will enable the practitioner to offer his clients a holistic, client centred practice from the best external evidence available. Adams, B. Bromley, B. (1998) Psychology for Health Care Key Terms and Concepts, London, Macmillan Press Beck, J.S. (1995) Cognitive Therapy Basics and Beyond, London, Guildford Press. Belsey, J. Snell, T. (2001) What is Evidence-Based Medicine? [Internet] Available from www.jr2.ox.uk/bandolier (Accessed 7th December 2004) Carmin, C.N. Albano, A.M. (2003) Clinical Management of Anxiety Disorder in Psychiatric Settings: Psychologys Impact on Evidence-Based Treatment of Children and Adults, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, Vol. 34, No. 2 pp 170-176. Colyer, H. Kamath, P. (1999) Evidence-based practice A philosophical and political analysis: some matters for consideration by professional practitioners, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp 188-193 Dadds, M.R. Spence, S.H. (1997) Prevention and Early Intervention for Anxiety Disorders: A Controlled Trial, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Vol. 65, No. 4, pp 627-635. Dattilio, F.M. Kendall, P.C. (2000) Panic Disorder In: Dattilio, F.M. Freeman, A. Cognitive Behavioural Strategies in Crisis Interventions 2nd Edition, London, The Guildford Press. Driscoll, J. Teh, B. (2001) The potential of reflective practice to develop individual orthopaedic nurse practitioners and their practice, Journal of Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 5, pp 95-103 Embling, S. (2002) The effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy in depression, Nursing Standard, Vol. 17, Nos. 14-15, pp 33-41 Feldman, L.B. Rivas-Vazquez, R.A. (2003) Assessment and Treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Vol. 34, No. 4, pp 396-405. Gates, B. (1996) Learning Disability In: Kenworthy, N. Snowley, G. Gilling, C. (Eds) Common Foundations Studies in Nursing Second Edition, London, Churchill Livingston. Hassiotis, A. Barron, P. OHara, J. (2000) Mental Health Services for People with Learning Disabilities, British Medical Journal, Vol. 321, Issue 7261, pp 583-584 Hatton, C. (2002) Psychosocial interventions for adults with intellectual disabilities and mental health problems: A review, Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp 357-373. Hewitt-Taylor, J. (2002) Evidence-based practice, Nursing Standard, Vol. 17, Nos. 14-15, pp 47-52. Department of Health (2001) Valuing People A New Strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century, A White Paper, London, HMSO. Department of Health (2002) Health Action Plans and Health Facilitation Good Practice Guidance for Learning Disability Partnership Boards, London, Department of Health. Heimberg, R.G. (2002) Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder: Current Status and Future Directions, Society of Biomedical Psychiatry, Vol. 51, pp 101-108. Kroese, B.S. Dagnan, D. Loumidis, K. (1997) (Eds) Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy for People with Learning Disabilities, London, Brunner-Routledge. Kroese, B.S. (1998) Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for People with Learning Disabilities, Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, Vol. 26, pp 315-322. McInnes, E. Harvey, G. Fennessy, G. Clark, E. (2001) Implementing evidence-based practice in clinical situations, Nursing Standard, Vol. 15, No. 41, pp 40-44. Meijel, van B. Game, C. Swieten-Duijfjes, van B. Grypdonck, M.H.F. (2003) The development of evidence-based nursing interventions: methodological considerations, Journal of Advance Nursing, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp 84-92. Parry, G. (2000) Evidence-based psychotherapy In: Rowland N. Goss S. (Eds) Evidence-Based Counselling and Psychological Therapies Research and Applications, London, Routledge. Ridsdale, L (1998) (Ed) Evidence-based Practice in Primary Care, London, Churchill Livingston. Rowland, N. Goss, S. (2000) (Eds) Evidence-Based Counselling and Psychological Therapies Research and Applications, London, Routledge. Sackett, D.L. Richardson, W.S. Rosenberg, W. Hayes, R.B. (1997) Evidence-based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM, London, Churchill Livingston. Scholing, A. Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (1999) Prediction of treatment outcomes in social phobia: a cross-validation, Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 37, pp 659-670 Seedhouse, D. (1998) Ethics The Heart of Health Care 2nd Edition, Chichester, Wiley. Sullivan, P. (1998) Developing evidence-based care in mental health nursing, Nursing Standard, Vol. 12, No. 31, pp 35-38

Cultural Factors Considered By International Marketing Cultural Studies Essay

Cultural Factors Considered By International Marketing Cultural Studies Essay A good basic definition of concept of culture is that it is a set of traditional beliefs and values that are transmitted and shared in a given society. Culture is also the total way of life and thinking pattern that passed from generation to generation. Culture means many things to many people because the concept encompasses norms, values, customs, art and mores. Usunier and Lee(2009)suggests that this emphasis on world markets is often viewed as cross-border extensions of American marketing thought, ignoring people, languages, culture and advocating uniformity. According to Linton (1945), culture is the sum total of several attributes such as knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behavior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society. Edward Tylor(2002), suggests that culture is a complexity of factors including belief, knowledge, moral, law, custom, art and other capabilities acquired by man as a social being or the member of society. People in different cultures often have different ideas about the same subject. What is acceptable in one culture may not necessarily be acceptable in another. Therefore, a phenomena appearing in different cultures can be interpreted in different manners. Culture is shared and passed from generation to generation and is relatively stable and permanent. Old habits to die hard and a people tend to maintain its own heritage inspite of the fast changing world. Cultural pride and prejudice make many nations reject foreign ideas and imported products. But the reverse may also be true and a perception of greatness attributed to another culture may lead to eager acceptance of things reflecting the culture. For example, Japanese are proud of their culture and economic achievements and prefer to buy Japanese goods. On the other hand, the words Made in America marked on a product communicate quality and sophistication to people in many developing countries. The concept of what is right and wrong is based on culture. To he straight forward and honest are considered morally right in the US even though the feelings of the people are hurt. In Latin cultures, however, people avoid direct statements that would embarrass or would make others uncomfortable. Thus, even if a Latin businessman does not mean to do business, he would appear to have intention to do so. In an empirical study of French, American and Germany managers, substantial differences were noted on ethical issues. On an issue, that may benefit the firm at the expense of the environment, the French and German managers would more likely side with their employers and participate in what they perceive as a relatively minor infraction of environmental law. The American managers were less likely to approve a production run which would result in air pollution. Japanese are also very particular on the maintenance of environmental balance in their work ethics during the production of goods. Multinational corporations operate in different host countries around the world and in doing so have to deal with a wide variety of political, economical, geographical, technological and marketing situations. Moreover, each host country has its own society and culture which is different in many important ways from almost every other society or culture, although there are some commonalties. Though society and culture do not appear to be a part of marketing situations, yet they are actually the key elements in showing how marketing activities will be conducted, from what goods will be produced, and through what means they will be sold to establishing industrial and management patterns and determining the success or failure of local subsidiary or affiliate. Society and culture influence every aspect of overseas business of an MNC and successful MNC operations whether it is marketing, finance, production, or personnel has to be acutely aware of the predominant attitudes, feelings, and opinion in the local environment. Differences in values and attitudes between the management and the parent offices and expatriate managers at the subsidiary or affiliate level and local managers and employees can lead to serious operational and functional problems, which arise not because there are individual problems, but because of the important differences between societies and cultures. Society and culture often mould general attitudes towards fundamentals of life such as time, money, productivity and achievement all of which can differ widely across countries and lead to situations of differing expectations between the management in the home office and local employees of subsidiaries and affiliates. While some sociocultural differences are obvious, others are relatively subtle, though equally important. It is often difficult for an international manager to catch on these subtle differences if he or she has not lived or worked in cultures other than that of home country. MNCs have realised sometimes through costly blunders, that socio cultural factors are vital ingredients that make up overall business environment and that it is essential to appreciate these differences and how they influence the business before an attempt is made to set up an operation in a host country. There are too many human variables and different types of international marketing functions for an exhaustive discussion about culture. The main elements of culture are: Attitudes and beliefs Attitudes towards time Attitudes towards work and leisure Attitudes towards achievement Attitudes towards change Attitudes towards job. Attitudes and beliefs: In every society there are norms of behaviour based on attitudes, values and beliefs that constitute a part of its culture. The set of attitudes and beliefs of a culture will influence nearly-all aspects of human behaviour, providing guidelines and organisation to a society and its individuals. Identifying the attitudes and beliefs of a society and how if they differ from ones own culture will help the businessperson more easily understand the behaviour of people. Attitudes towards time: Everywhere in the world people use time tc communicate with each other. In international business, attitudes towards time are displayed in behaviour regarding punctuality, responses to business communication, responses to deadlines, and the amounts of time that are spent waiting in an outer office for an appointment. Attitudes towards work and leisure: Most people in the industrial society work many more hours than is necessary to satisfy their basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Their attitudes towards work and leisure are indicative of their views towards wealth and material gains. These attitudes affect the types, qualities and numbers of individuals who pursue entrepreneurial and management careers as well. Many industrial psychologists have conducted research in this area to determine what motivates people to work more than is necessary to provide for their basic needs. One explanation is the Protestant ethic which has its basis in the reformation, when work was viewed as a means of salvation and people preferred to transform productivity gains into additional output rather than additional leisure. Europeans and Americans are typically considered to adhere to this work ethic because they generally view work as a moral virtue and look unfavourably in the idle. Attitudes towards achievement: Cultural differences in the general attitudes towards work are also accompanied by significant national differences in achievement motivation. In some cultures, particularly those with high stratified and hierarchical societies, there is tendency to avoid personal responsibility and to work according to precise instructions received from supervisors that are followed by the latter. In many societies, especially where social security is low and jobs are prized, there is a tendency to avoid taking risks and little innovation in work or production processes. In such cultures, the prospects of higher achievement is not considered attractive enough to warrant taking avoidable risks. In many industrial societies, however, attitudes towards personal achievements are different. Personal responsibility and the ability to take risks for potential gain are considered valuable instruments in achieving higher goals. In fact, in many cultures the societal pressure on achievement -5 so intense that individuals are automatically driven towards attempting ambitious The types of attitudes among workers and managers often influence the types of management that has to be utilised to achieve corporate goals. In a culture that emphasises risk taking, greater responsibility, and individual decision making  « decentralised management system would be more appropriate. In a culture, where there is a tendency to put in only adequate amounts of work where achievement is not a valued attribute in a person, the company will follow a more centralisee management system with only limited delegation of decision-making authority. Attitudes towards change. The international manager must understand what aspects of a culture will resist change and how the areas of resistance differ among cultures, how the process of change takes place in different cultures and how long :: will take to implement change. There are two conflicting forces within a culture! regarding change. People attempt to protect and preserve a culture with an elaborate set of sanctions and laws on vogue against those who deviate from norms. Wher. differences are seen, they are perceived as, my method is right and other methods must be wrong. The contradictory force is one in which the public is aware that the cultural environment is continuously changing and that a culture must change in order to ensure its own continuity. In fact, in order to balance these attitudes, the manager must remember that a closer new idea can be related to a traditional one whed illustrating its relative advantage, the greater the acceptance of that new concept Usually, cultures with centuries old traditions that have remained closed to outside influences are more resistant to change than other cultures. The level of education in a society and the exposure of its people to the knowledge and experience of other cultures is an extremely important determinant of its attitude towards change. Attitude towards job. The type of job that is considered most desirable or prestigious varies greatly according to different cultures. Thus, while the medicinal and legal professions are considered extremely prestigious in the United States, civil service is considered most prestigious occupation in several developing countries including India. References Morgan, A., 1998, Copycat TV: Globalisation, program formats and cultural identity, Luton, England, University of Luton Press. Tylor Edward B., 2002, Primitive Culture in: Lambek Michael (ed.): A Reader in the Anthropology of Religion, Malden/Ma./USA Oxford/UK, pp. 21-34 Linton, Ralph 1945, The cultural background of personality. New York, Appleton-Century Philip R. Cateora, John L. Graham, 2007, International Marketing, 13th Edition, McGraw-Hills. Jean-Claude Usunier and Julie Anne Lee, 2009, Marketing Across Cultures, 5th edition, Prentice Hall. Latha Nair, 1999, Personnel Management, Himalaya publishing house. Dr. K. Aswathappa, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations, Himalaya publishing house. Svend Hollenses, A global Marketing decision oriented Approach, 3rd Edition. Stonehouse, G, Campbell, D, Hamill, J, Purdie, T, 2004, Global and transnationl business, 2nd Edition, John wiley and sons, west Sussex. Palmer, A, 2007, Introduction to marketing, Oxford university press, Newdelhi. (b) Cateora and Ghauri (2006) state that for the inexperienced marketer, the similar but different aspect of culture creates an illusion of similarity that usually does not exist. What do they mean by this statement? Explain and give specific examples to illustrate the points made. (50% of marks for this assignment) Consumption patterns, living styles and the priority of needs of the human beings play important roles on the culture. This in other words means that culture prescribes the manner in which people satisfy their desires/needs. Consumption of certain food gives a good example of how it influences the culture. Americans, Europeans and Arabians consume beef whereas Thais, Chinese and the majority of Indians do not consume beef at all believing that it is improper to eat cattle that work on farms, thus helping to provide food such as rice and vegetables. In Japan, the per capita annual consumption of beef has increased to 11 Lbs. which is very small compared to the 100 Lbs. per capita consumed in the US and Argentina. The Japanese eat uncooked sea food and the Iraqis eat dried, salted locust as snacks while drinking. The French eat snails. Americans and Europeans use honey (Bee expectorate or bee spit) and blue cheese or Roquefort salad dressing which is made with strong cheese with bluish mould. It has been seen that no society has a monopoly on their unusual eating habits when comparisons are made among various societies. Food preparation methods are also dictated by cultural preferences. Asian consumer prefers chicken broiled or boiled rather than fried. Consequently, the Chinese found that the Americans fried chicken style is foreign and distasteful. The culture not only dictates the type of food to be consumed but also it affects what should not be purchased. For example, Muslims do not purchase chicken unless it is hallaled and like Jews no consumption of pork is allowed. They also do not use alcoholic beverages, a habit which is shared by some of the Protestants. Moussy a non-alcoholic beer from Switzerland is a product that was manufactured for the consumption of Muslims being a non-alcoholic beverage. Life-style of individuals in every country has its own cultural influence. For example, in India majority of male and female wear dhoties/saris/lungis whereas in Pakistan they wear Salwar Kameez. In the western countries the dress code for men is suit with headgear as hat and for ladies it is skirt and blouse whereas in India the headgear is mostly turban. This life-style basically depends upon the weather conditions of the country. The priority of needs from one country to another also varies. For example, the westerners are effluent and buy their imported clothes in large quantities. In the developing countries the needs of individuals are meager. Hence most of the men and women are dressed in the minimum. Beside consumption habits, the thinking processes are also affected by culture. It has been observed that when the individuals travel overseas, it is virtually impossible for a person to observe foreign cultures without making reference, perhaps unconsciously, back to personal cultural values. This phenomenon is known as self reliance criterion (SRC). It is because of the effect of SRC the individual remains bound by his or her cultural assumptions. It is, therefore, necessary for the foreign traveller to recognise how the perception of overseas events can be distorted by the effect of SRC. The best example of SRC is the behaviour of the individuals treating their animals which reflects their thinking processes. Americans and Europeans usually treat dogs and cats as family members addressing the animals affectionately and even allowing them to sleep on their beds. Arabs view dogs as filthy animals. Some in the Far Eas: like Korea and Thailand, go as far as cooking and eating dogs. Hindus in contrast revere cows and are surprised as to how the westerners and the Muslims eat beef, that also in large quantity. The efforts of the international marketing man should be to reduce SRC effect on the individuals. The presence of SRC, if not controlled, can invalidate the results of the research study. Lee suggests a multi-step approach to remove the undue influence of SRC. Firstly the problem should be defined in terms of the culture of the researchers home country. Secondly, the same problem is defined again except that it is defined in terms of the cultural norms of the host country. Thirdly, a comparison is made of two cultural composites. Any difference between the composites indicates the existence of SRC. Although African, Arab and Asian business methods have endured for centuries, most American firms react to those methods in ethnocentric terms and prefer to conduct business along the familiar western lines. Project Heads launching a venture in less developed countries should consider the following guidelines: Resist the tendency to conduct business immediately on landing. Resist the tendency to conduct business at all times. Consider doing favour as a business tool to generate allies. Contact, cultivate and conduct field work among at least one sample clientele to serve as an initial testing centre for the firms product. Introduce the product line into the sample group by local forms of cause related marketing. Extend product acceptance beyond the sample clientele into related segments. An awareness of the influence of the SRCs is valuable because such awareness can help a manager to prevent a transfer of personal cultural norms on a wholesale basis to an overseas market. This awareness should make the manager more customer oriented and the marketing strategy thus developed will reflect through market needs. A country may be classified as a high context culture or low context culture. The context of culture is either high or low in terms of in depth background information. North America and North Europe are examples of low context cultures. In these types of societies messages are explicit and clear in the sense that actual words are used to convey the main part of information in communication. What is important is what is said, not how it is said and not the environment within which it is said. Japan, France, Spain, Italy, some countries of Asia like India, Africa (South Africa) and the Middle East Arabian nations are High-Context Cultures. In such countries the communication may be indirect and the expressive manner in which the message is delivered becomes critical because the verbal part does not carry most of the information. The context of communication is high because it includes a great deal of additional information such as message senders values, position, background and associations in the society. Ones individual environment such as physical setting and social circumstances determine what one says and how it is interpreted by others. This type of communication emphasises ones character and words as determinants of ones integrity making it possible for business persons to come to terms without detailed legal work. A common advertising method used by American advertisers is to present a TV commercial as an illustrated lecture. In this low context method, a product is discussed in the absence of its natural setting. Such a message is not easily understood in high context cultures because of the omission of the essential contextual details. In one of the studies, carried out by researchers they tested six European commercials on five cultural groups ranging from the high context Asian group to the low context Swedish group and the evidence supported Wells proposition. Compared to a low context culture, high context cultures perceive non-verbal communication elements as being more informative.

Killings By Andre Dubus English Literature Essay

Killings By Andre Dubus English Literature Essay The short story Killings is written by Andre Dubus and was first published in 1979. The short story has also been adapted into a motion picture called In the Bedroom by director Todd Field in 2001. The movie had actors Sissy Spacek, Marisa Tomei and Tom Wilkinson in the lead roles and was even nominated for several Academy Awards. The story is set in the town of Massachusetts and explores the psychology and emotions of bereaved parents who have just lost a twenty-one year old son- murdered for having a relationship with a woman who had a jealous ex-husband and two children. Dubus treats the character of the murderer, Richard Strout, humanely and provides an empathetic perspective so that the reader can actually feel the frustration of the young man whose wife was seeing a man much younger than her and his jealousy getting the better of him. Dubus has concentrated on the revenge killing of Richard by Franks father, Matt Fowler. Richard had committed a murder of passion as he felt provoked by Franks intimacy with his estranged wife and two sons. Dubus has pictured Richard Strout as a crude man without a very high sense of morality. This is further demonstrated by the fact that Richard starts to date other women as soon as he is out of prison on bail. Matt and Ruth, Franks parents, have encountered Richard roaming around scot-free without any remorse as is apparent in Matts comment to his friend Willis Trottier, He walks the Goddamn streets (Dubus 4). This angers Matt and saddens Ruth as they feel that the murdered of their son had gotten away without being punished for his brutal crime. The main message in the story is that even though Matt Fowler avenges his sons death, finds no peace and is haunted by a sense of guilt and utter loneliness. Retribution and revenge for the murder of a loved one, though, a very natural human instinct, is not always the answer to the loss of the person. Matt Fowler felt justified in kidnapping and killing Richard Strout, however, having accomplished his final act of revenge, does not find peace. The question Dubus has raised in this story is whether revenge is a better solution to forgiveness. At the end of the story we are left to wonder whether Matt Fowler would have been better off forgiving Richard Strout instead of killing him. By kidnapping and killing Richard, Matt Fowler only reinforced violence which affected not just him but his entire family. Dubus provides details of the gruesome murders in the story to bring out the horror of the crimes they committed. Richard had shot Frank three times in front of his children which Dubus uses to highlight the mindless and abhorrent behavior of Richard. This act of passion and revenge turns the life of an otherwise ordinary happy person into a nightmare and pushes him to commit a crime that he would not have dreamt of if he had not been so provoked. The Fowlers reckon that Strout would only serve five years at the most in jail on charges of man slaughter which is not nearly enough for Ruth and Matt. In the story, Dubus has written about two murders, yet, the reader is tempted to label only Richard as the real murderer and not Matt because the reader feels an innate empathy for the bereaved father. We tend to justify Matts criminal act even though both the killings were similar in nature and both the murderers were allowed to go free after their heinous crimes. This is probably because we look for justice and Richard being let out on bail and showing himself around without any punishment being given to him makes us feel that he deserved what happened to him. As humans, we are emotional and look for closure in any given event, however horrific and the final denouement seems to be justified. It is also important to remember that Matt Fowler was not a killer by temperament whereas Richard was hot-tempered and callous. Goading Matt into an act which was unnatural for him seems to justify the end. The killing of Richard Strout was only a means of achieving the ends of justice- or that is what Matt imagined. Even though, Matt has a confidante in Willis and has the sympathy of the entire community, in the end he is plagued with this knowledge that he is no less a murderer than Richard. He is ridden with guilt and this makes him feel isolated and morally dead. The irony is that as readers we feel empathy for the Fowlers and even though we cannot condone what Matt did we feel there should have been a way where family, friends and the larger community had intervened and allowed Ruth and Matt to share their grief. Not having a channel to express their agony, Matt turned violent in his mind and killed Richard everyday in the face (Dubus 10) just as Richard had killed his son. Dubus has left his readers wondering whether for all the empathy that they must feel for Matt and Ruths loss, was the pre-planned, cold-blooded murder of Richard necessary to experience a feeling that justice had been done and feel purged off their growing inner violence. As things would have it, Matt does not feel tranquil and struggles to whip up the hatred he felt for his sons murderer after going through his house and seeing the more human side of Richard. The role of Willis in the planning and execution in the kidnapping and killing of Richard has been shown to be a bit dubious. It is true that being a good friend of the Fowlers he would feel strongly for them, but to cold-bloodedly plan the murder of a young man who went to school with his own sons needs more justification. Ruth and Matts motivation for exterminating the cause of their sorrow may find a resonant sympathy in the hearts of the readers but Willis motivation to abet in the killing of Richard brings us to face the r eality of how brutal we have become.

the gathering Essay examples -- essays research papers

Ernest J. Gaines was born on January 15, 1933, in Oscar, Louisiana. Many of his stories and characters are set in the swamplands of Louisiana. His target audience is Black southern youth; his goal is to give them a sense of pride in their heritage. Recently, Gaines participated in the conference "Black and White Perspectives on the American South," which intended to examine how the two races view themselves and the relations to one another. In the book A Gathering of old men, there was lots of symbolism throughout the scenes. Tthe book describes the transaction from the old south to the new south, a south that depends on the the co-existence of blacks and whites. In order for this too take place some old black men are going to have to stand up for themselves when a white cajun farmer by the name of Beau is murdered. The old black men in the story will have to face up to a racist sherriff by the name of Mapes.Beau Boutans brother Gil, who plays fullback for Louisiana State University, and depends on a black running back, is getting tired of his family violent name. He comes home to confront his dad Fix Boutan. By doing this Gil represents a new southern way. The man who murdered Beau, Charlie, was a very large man. He had been running away from his fears since he was a kid, but on this fateful day all that would change. It was finally time for Charlie to become a man after so many years. In one of the scenes from the book A Gathering of Old Men, the old men gathered around the Sheriff Mapes who symbolized white power with his gigantic size and his authority . Mapes was trying to figure out who had killed Beau Boutan. Their stories all came down to the same conclusion as the next mans story. They were fed up with verbal and physical abuse of from the Boutans. Mapes in all his years never seen such a sight or better yet a boldness in the eyes and mouths of the old black men. Even though he cursed them and hit them to get the truth, the old black men kept their stories, that they were all guilty of the murder of Beau Boutan. Before Mat left his house, one of the old black men, he and his wife got into an argument. She did not want him to be involved in what was going on. With tears of past hurt coming down his face he told her how for many years he has helped the white man get richer and the black man get poorer. He told her he was going down there f... ...ted to have written some short stories. He was criticized in his stories because he felt that poor white people will except the new south, which is built on the interracial cooperation, with some or none violent rejection (Summers 93). William faulkner, a black author, said Gaines fails to see the lingering tradition of the old south, that he does not see that white people will always be white people (Vinson 93). But I fell that faulkner fails too see the character Candy was. Even though she was on the side of the old black men, when they wanted to meet without her. She did not respect there request on the basis she thought she was still the leader or the head. Also Mapes character did respect Mathu and Charlie, but at the same time he referred to them at one points as â€Å"niggers†.Gaines story depicts the coming of a south that will tolerate the co-existence of blacks and white, but he was a little to far ahead the timeline in this book, in those days there would have been a lynching without a doubt(Wertheim123). In conclusion, Gaines touched up well on all the attitudes and stereotypes of the southern way of life, and on its objection of the co-existing between whites and blacks.

Matilda :: Essays Papers

Matilda Squinting her eyes and concentrating very hard, Matilda managed to tip the glass of water over onto Miss Trunchbull, this being only the beginning of what was to happen next with her new found powers. Matilda, by Roald Dahl was creative and fun. I recommend it to anyone who is in for a little youthful adventure. It tells the story of a little girl with a horrible life. Her parents have no interest in her, and the Headmistress at her school is monstrous. Matilda deals with her problems by reading and learning mathematics. She is very bright and clever for a five year old. She soon discovers that she is able to move objects with her mind alone. Matilda’s parents are Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood. Being completely involved in the â€Å"Tele,† Mrs. Wormwood pays no attention to Matilda and what she has to say about anything. Mr. Wormwood, on the other hand, does nothing for Matilda except chastise her every move. Feeling unloved, Matilda turns to reading to keep her busy. Thinking that books are stupid, Mr. Wormwood calls her stupid and foolish for wasting her time on such things. Despite the verbal abuse from her parents, Matilda continues with her interests and does what she can to get back at her father for constantly denouncing her. For instance, she replaced his hair tonic with her mother’s hair dye, causing Mr. Wormwood’s hair to be turned a platinum blonde. On her first day of school, Matilda’s teacher Miss Honey becomes very interested in her abilities, wondering where the child picked up such an ability to solve complicated mathematical equations and read such great novels for a child her age. Miss Honey is a petite woman. She is timid towards her aunt, Miss Trunchbull, but can handle the first semester kids very well. Miss Trunchbull, a large intimidating woman, is very cold at heart. She was suspected of rubbing off Miss Honey’s father, Dr. Honey, and forged a will that gave her his house and left nothing for Miss Jennifer Honey. When Matilda was told about this, she became enthralled in helping out Miss Jennifer Honey with getting her house back. One day in class, the atrocious Miss Trunchbull was yelling at everyone because there was a newt in her water. She, of course, blamed the whole milestone on Matilda, who was innocent.

Human Relations and Education Essay -- essays research papers

Human relations cover a multitude of interpersonal interaction. Human Relations can be seen in education through group development and the resulting interpersonal interaction. The Thread That Runs So True and Stand and Deliver, are both good illustrations of this development and interaction. The teachers and/or students are interacting with the administration, peers, and parents in both of these stories. The ability to effectively communicate is the most important aspect of human relations. Without the ability to effectively communicate, there would be no human relations or less than satisfactorily relations. Effective interpersonal communication can be divided into five main concepts. The following will focus on these five main concepts that made both Stuart and Escalante effective communicators in a student/teacher relationship. Each concept will also have underlying subcategories that both the stories illustrated well. The first and the most important aspects of human relations and the ability to effectively communicate can be found in an awareness or knowledge of self. If a person doesn’t understand or know who they are, then how can they have a relationship with anyone else. An adequate self-concept comes from knowing your own values principals and ethics and not being willing to compromise those beliefs. Culture plays a role in this by knowing where you came from. I think that for both Stuart and Escalante this played a major role in their relation to others. Both men ...

Marriott Corp: the Cost of Capital

To : President, Marriott Corporation From : FLO299 Subject : Marriott Corporation – The Cost of Capital Date : April 6, 2010 The Importance of the Cost of Capital The cost of capital is important as it forms the basis for Marriott’s investing and financial decisions. By understanding and knowing the cost of capital, Marriott is able to select relevant investment projects for the company, determine incentive compensation, and repurchase undervalued shares when needed. The returns of a project were found by discounting the appropriate cash flows against the appropriate hurdle rates. Without knowing the cost of capital, Marriott would not be able to determine hurdle rates that would help Marriott’s growth. Also, knowing the cost of debt would allow Marriott to optimize the use of debt in the company’s capital structure. Knowing the hurdle rates on a divisional level would also enable Marriott to reward their managers using incentive compensation. By using hurdle rates, Marriott managers would be â€Å"more sensitive to Marriott’s financial strategy and capital market conditions† and would give the company a more accountable method of rewarding their employees. Lastly, Marriott’s method of calculating a â€Å"warranted equity value† for its common shares required knowing the company’s equity cost of capital. A share price that was below the â€Å"warranted equity value† signaled to Marriott when the company needed to step in to repurchase its stock as the company believed that repurchases of shares were a better use of Marriott’s cash flow and debt capacity than acquisitions or owning real estate. Computing Marriott’s WACC The cost-of-capital was computed both divisionally and overall for the company. It required using the formula WACC = (1-t_)RD(D/V) + RE(E/V). D and E are the market values of the debt and equity respectively and V (market value) = D+E. RD and RE are the pretax cost of debt and cost of equity respectively and t is the corporate tax rate. The Numbers Used in Marriott’s WACC A 34% tax rate rate will be assumed for simplicity's sake so more effort can be focused on other issues . The above WACC calculation uses market value of debt. Cost of debt can be observed directly by calculating the yield to maturity of outstanding bonds, but since the bond market is not very transparent and we know Marriott's unsecured debt is A-rated, the company can expect to pay a spread above some base rate. Which index to use should be determined by project life, and as lodging is based on a long term business model, a 30-year treasury bond is appropriate. In this case, the base is 8. 95% according to Tabe B and the spread for the overall company is 130 basis points according to Table A. Also found in Table A, Marriott set a target of the debt percentage in its capital structure to be 60% for the overall company. Because there is no way of directly observing the return that equity investors require, we rely on a couple of methods to estimate it. A dividend growth model can be used, and although simply to use, this approach assumes steady dividend growth. This approach also does not directly adjust for the riskiness of a project. An alternative approach is to use CAPM, which does not rely on dividend growth and does take both the market risk premium and systematic risk into consideration. Using CAPM to estimate the cost of equity we use the following formula: _E(R)=Rf+ {draw:frame} *MRP_. Rf is the same risk-free base rate used to calculate cost of debt, in this case, 8. 95% from Table A. The {draw:frame} is obtained from regression using market data and therefore is affected by leverage. To adjust for this, the B is unlevered and then relevered so that it is the B for business risk only, independent of capital structure. With due consideration given to each input, Appendix A is a computation of Marriott's WACC, 11. 87%, which is also the required rate of return for the company overall. The Use of Marriott’s WACC in Divisional Decisions Marriott can use the computed WACC to support its stock repurchasing decisions because it allows the equity cash flows to be discounted at a company level rate. But because each cost of capital input could differ amongst its divisions, the cost of capital varies across each. If Marriott used the above calculated WACC for all divisional decisions, it would cause the company to take on riskier projects, projects that once risk adjusted would likely cause the company to lose money in the long run. A better approach would be to use individual {draw:frame} for each project with CAPM to calculate the WACC for each project and compare it to IRR. Determining Divisional WACC To estimate the WACC for each division, we need their corresponding {draw:frame} . To do this we use comparable companies for each division; this is because we cannot run regressions at the divisional level as that information is not available. For the lodging division, we compare other hotel companies, for the restaurant division, we compare other restaurants, and for the contract services division we use the identity: {draw:frame} M=WL* {draw:frame} L+WR {draw:frame} R+WCS {draw:frame} CS. The identifiable assets in Exhibit 2 will be used to compute the weights of each division. Once again, because the information is actual market numbers, {draw:frame} E is affected by leverage and must be unlevered by multiplying it by 1 – market leverage. This results in {draw:frame} A which is business risk, independent of capital structure. Asset risk is the only thing that is comparable across firms. Within each divisional comparison to comparable companies, weighted average of {draw:frame} A is used as smaller companies have less impact on the overall segment. These numbers are shown in Exhibit 3. The WACC for each division is found in Appendix B to D. Differences in WACC Appendix A: Marriott’s Overall WACC Calculation Appendix B: Marriott’s WACC for Lodging Appendix C: Marriott’s WACC for Restaurants Appendix D: Marriott’s WACC for Contract Services Identifiable lodging assets = 2777. 4 WL = 60. 61% {draw:frame} L = . 57 Identifiable restaurant assets = 567. 6 WR = 12. 39% {draw:frame} R = . 75 Identifiable contract services assets = 1237. 7 WCS= 27. 00% {draw:frame} CS = solve for this below {draw:frame} M=WL* {draw:frame} L+WR {draw:frame} R+WCS {draw:frame} CS 0. 57 = . 6061*0. 42 + . 12390. 75 + . 2700 {draw:frame} CS {draw:frame} CS = 0. 57

Stone Cold

St unrivaled arctic is a have got written by Robert Swindells, the plot of the story is set on two spate, one who is dispossessed ( touch) and one who kills because he believes that the homeless ruin the score (Shelter).Robert Swindells is clever at writing the story, as he switches between the two characters stimulate in touch and shelter, the characters in the story are either antithetical and lead very different lives, Shelter who used to be in the army left after problems, at one timeadays he believes that he is still in the army and is on a boot to kill people especially homeless people on the tracks, he makes his admit recruits and and then kills them brutally, he believes that he is reservation the place look tidier and cleaner.Then there is Link, Link has had a lot of worry at home, and he has left his family and fri ends to lead a better life on the streets of London, though he is finding it hard to survive, and has had trouble rationing the money he had. He finds himself in London, he barely survives as he finds a bed geminate called ginger, however when ginger suddenly disappears involvement is all back on his suffer in the great city of London, then he meets Gail, but then a again like all the people he meets, he finds that she is a reporter.Robert Swindells makes this book interesting, by making the suspense last, and he uses complex vocabulary to create an atmosphere, he brings shelter to life, he creates link by bringing him into shelter and into the insecure street life of London, he makes you feel disconsolate and puts your feelings and puts them in the story, he makes you feel glowering of Link by showing and show that this boy is now on the streets as he has made a fate of his life.And now at the very end in London alone he lives, with a broken heart, no sports fan or friend, however he is now more street wise and he understands not to fall into the arms of anyone and get attached to soon.

The Human Brain and Philosophy

Our brain is a organic machine composed of many whole complex pieces.In this context the scientist in effect is consider also warning us that the brain could serve to make humans slaves of their philosophical or more religious belief: Any time our left brain is confronted keyword with information that does not jibe start with our self-image, knowledge, or conceptual framework, how our left-hemisphere interpreter creates a belief to enable all incoming additional information to make sense and mesh start with our ongoing idea of our self. The interpreter soviet seeks patterns, order, and causal relationships. (Gazzaniga, 2005).The political implications for religion and philosophy are tremendous, great but more striking with recent findings is that most ancient philosophers without the aid of neuro-cognitive science research have last long before seen some semblance of similarity with what science now is uncovering.Less well known is the way the brain folds.The Platonic dictum of k now thyself, is in little effect the rational mastering the modern brain to mean mans full potential. Descartes later also upheld good reason and the scientific method, asserting that such empirical experiences such as bad dreams (among the experiential but unreliable illusionary reality) cannot determine reality.Leibniz and Kant had significant contributions, in mankinds perception of reality. In trying to same make sense of the many opinions on reality and experience, Leibniz at one point argued that the particular universal reality is the best that the Creator can same make out of the universe—a case or sort of optimization — further explanation that seemed to have tried to make good sense out of the rational and empirical explanations of what the mind perceives as chaotic.

Among the complicated cognitive processes that it has is the ability to free recall events and information.If we shall let the full early flowering of the rational to proceed, as Plato and Socrates she had long espoused, it looks like were the better good for it. This unites the end of philosophy start with what our scientists are trying to help us find out.(2005) Brain and Philosophy 3 many References 1 Gazzanga,M. â€Å"Whole Brain Interpreter†: Science News, February 24, 1996.Few cells are prepared for implantation.html 2 Gazzanga,M. The Ethical Brain by Michael Gazzaniga . (Chicago. : Dana Press 2005) ,145-55.

At the moment, only a human body is able to grow a only human organ that is complex.Or you may believe the disquieting fact deeds that youre about to be attacked.Therefore, its very, very worrisome right now.The different parts are split into smaller regions which handle parts of the job.

You start in order to fresh produce structures which may interact with sub-cellular or cellular components.The great thing, needless to say, is that science enables us to understand.Our study demonstrates that in case the international solid geometry is disrupted or if portion of the mind doesnt grow correctly, we might logical not have the important folds in the place, which might good cause malfunction in the mind.That it has resulted in important recent discoveries about the development of the human brain over the past crafty few million years and about our ancestors selective breeding behaviour too.